Vernacularisation of the Epics: Literary Transformation and Regional Identity in Medieval Bengali Ramayana and Mahabharata

The Sanskrit versions of the Ramayana and Mahabharata were translated from Sanskrit into regional languages, such that common people who did not read or understand Sanskrit could follow these texts.

In the context of Bengal, this process resulted in the creation of the Krittivasi Ramayan and the Kashidasi Mahabharat.

The shift toward vernacular translations of the epics began around the 12th century and reached its peak between the 14th and 17th centuries. This period was marked by the decline of Sanskrit as a living, spoken medium and the rise of regional languages.

The primary driver for translating the Ramayana and Mahabharata was the desire to bring spiritual content within the reach of the general populace. Poets like Tulsidas in the North, Kamban in the South, and Krittibas in the East recognized that the ethical and philosophical truths of the epics needed to be accessible to everyone, regardless of caste or education.

This linguistic democratization was fuelled by the Bhakti movement, which emphasized a bond with a deity. The heroes of the epics, Rama and Krishna, were viewed as personal saviours. Translators recreated the aesthetic and emotional experience of the text in the local idiom.

While Valmiki’s Ramayana and Vyasa’s Mahabharata remain the authoritative benchmarks, other Sanskrit versions introduced some changes. The Adhyatma Ramayana shifted the perspective from Rama as a virtuous man to Rama as the Supreme Being, heavily influencing Tulsidas's Ramcharitmanas. The Yoga Vasistha used the Ramayana framework as a vehicle for Advaita Vedanta philosophy, while the Adbhuta Ramayana focused on the power of Sita, portraying her as the one who defeats Ravana.

This was not limited to Hinduism. In the Buddhist Dasaratha Jataka, Rama and Sita are portrayed as siblings and bodhisattvas, and there is no war with Lanka; the focus is on Rama's renunciation and detachment. Jain versions like the Paumachariyam say that the characters were mortals rather than divine incarnations and emphasize non-violence; in these versions, Lakshmana kills Ravana because Rama is too pure to commit such an act.

The spread of the epics to Southeast Asia led to further diversification. In the Thai Ramakien, Hanuman plays a much more prominent role, and the narrative is set against the backdrop of Thai culture.

Some Ramayana Versions:

Version	Tradition / Region	Unique Characteristic
Valmiki Ramayana	Sanskrit / Pan-India	Focus on Rama’s human virtue (Maryada Purushottama)
Dasaratha Jataka	Buddhist	Rama and Sita as siblings; emphasis on renunciation
Paumachariyam	Jain	Non-violence; characters as human mortals
Ramavataram	Tamil (Kamban)	Psychologically complex Ravana; deep Tamil aesthetics
Ramcharitmanas	Awadhi (Tulsidas)	Strong Bhakti; Rama as the supreme God
Ramakien	Thai	Hanuman as a central hero; green-skinned Ravana

By the time Kashiram Das wrote his Mahabharata in the 17th century, Bengal had been influenced by Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and the rise of Gaudiya Vaishnavism was prevalent. This movement emphasized the Radha-Krishna relationship and emotional devotion, making the Mahabharata (and specifically the stories of Krishna) highly relevant to the spiritual lives of the people.

Krittibas Ojha was born in the village of Phulia in the Nadia district, likely in the late 14th or early 15th century. Krittibas was sent to Nabadwip for higher education. Upon finishing his studies, he was tasked with creating a version of the Ramayana that would be accessible to the common people of Bengal. His work, the Sriram Panchali (popularly known as the Krittivasi Ramayan), was not a literal translation of Valmiki, but a creative reimagining designed to be sung. He aimed to strip away the distant tone of the Sanskrit and replace it with a familiar narrative rhythm that reflected the society and culture of Bengal. Written in the payar meter, it became the most popular book in pre-modern Bengal.

Kashiram Das was a 17th-century poet born into a Kayastha Vaishnava family in the village of Singi. His work, the Bharata-Panchali, avoids long philosophical discourses—omitting the entire Bhagavad Gita—to focus on narrative action and moral stories. Kashiram completed the first four books (Adi, Sabha, Vana, and Virata) around 1604 CE. After his death, the remaining fourteen books were completed by his son, nephew, and relatives, following his style for continuity.

The Krittivasi Ramayan contains several major deviations from Valmiki's version that fundamentally shaped Bengali Hindu consciousness.

One departure is the story of the birth of King Bhagiratha in the Adi Kanda. In Krittibas's version, Shiva blesses King Dilipa's two widows, and from their union, Bhagiratha is born. Initially born as a "lump of flesh," he is transformed into a perfect human by the blessing of the sage Ashtavakra.

When Garuda arrives to liberate Rama and Lakshmana from the Nagpasha of Indrajit, a doubt arises: how could the Supreme Lord be rendered unconscious? To reassure him, Rama manifests in the form of Krishna. This revelation is a quintessential Bengali deviation reflecting Gaudiya Vaishnavism.

In Valmiki’s Ramayana, Rama relies on his own prowess to defeat Ravana. Krittibas, however, introduced the "Akal Bodhan" (Untimely Awakening) of Goddess Durga. Rama performs a special puja in the autumn to seek her blessings. When he is one lotus short of 108, he prepares to offer his own eye. This became the justification for the autumnal Durga Puja, Bengal's most important festival.

While the Lakshmana Rekha is a central part of the story in modern imagination, its roots are not in Valmiki; Krittibas was among the first poets to formalize the drawing of this magical boundary.

Krittibas introduced characters like Taranisen and Birbahu who are portrayed as secret devotees of Rama. Taranisen enters the battlefield with Rama's name written all over his body, seeking death at his hands to achieve liberation.

Kashiram Das integrated numerous folk legends and Puranic side-stories into his Mahabharata. He created an elaborate sequel to the snake sacrifice involving King Janamejaya. The king attempts a horse sacrifice against Vyasa's advice, which ends in humiliation, and his eventual purification through listening to the Mahabharata is a unique Bengali narrative device.

A dramatic incident occurs in the Drona Parva by Kabi Sanjay. Upon hearing of the death of Abhimanyu, Draupadi is consumed by martial fury and personally enters the war, leading an army composed entirely of women against the Kaurava forces.

An entire episode involving King Srivatsa is integrated into the Kashidasi Mahabharat, where the king is tested by the god Shani.

In the Bengali epics, the poets "localized" the flora, fauna, and social customs. The marriage of Rama and Sita in Krittibas’s version includes the full suite of Bengali Hindu wedding rituals:

• Mala Badal: The playful exchange of garlands.
• Saat Paak: The bride being carried around the groom seven times on a piri.
• Gaye Holud: The application of turmeric paste.
• Sindoor Daan: The groom applying vermilion.